Niger-Congo languages

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The Niger-Congo languages constitute one of the world's major language families, and Africa's largest in terms of geographical area, number of speakers, and number of distinct languages. They may constitute the world's largest language family in terms of distinct languages, although this question is complicated by ambiguity about what constitutes a distinct language. Most of the most widely spoken indigenous languages of Subsaharan Africa belong to this group. A common property of many Niger-Congo languages is the use of a noun class system.

Classification history


Early classifications

Niger-Congo as it is known today was only gradually recognized as a unity. In early classifications of African languages, one of the principal criteria used to distinguish different groupings was the languages' use of prefixes to classify nouns, or the lack thereof. A major advance came with the work of Koelle, who in his 1854 Polyglotta Africana attempted a careful classification, the groupings of which in quite a number of cases correspond to modern groupings. An early sketch of the extent of Niger-Congo as one language family can be found in Koelle's observation, echoed in Bleek (1856), that the Atlantic languages used prefixes just like many Southern African languages. Subsequent work of Bleek, and some decades later the comparative work of Meinhof, solidly established Bantu as a linguistic unit.

In many cases, wider classifications employed a blend of typological and racial criteria. Thus, Friedrich Müller, in his ambitious classification (1876-88), separated the 'Negro' and Bantu languages. Likewise, the Africanist Lepsius considered Bantu to be of African origin, and many 'Mixed Negro languages' as products of an encounter between Bantu and intruding Asiatic languages.

In this period a relation between Bantu and languages with Bantu-like (but less complete) noun class systems began to emerge. Some authors saw the latter as languages which had not yet completely evolved to full Bantu status, whereas others regarded them as languages which had partly lost original features still found in Bantu. The Bantuist Meinhof made a major distinction between Bantu and a 'Semi-Bantu' group which according to him was originally of the unrelated Sudanic stock.



Westermann, Greenberg and beyond




Westermann's 1911 Die Sudansprachen. Eine sprachvergleichende Studie laid the basis for much of Niger-Congo.

Westermann, a pupil of Meinhof, set out to establish the internal classification of the then Sudanic languages. In a 1911 work he established a basic division between 'East' and 'West'. A historical reconstruction of West Sudanic was published in 1927, and in his 1935 'Charakter und Einteilung der Sudansprachen' he conclusively established the relationship between Bantu and West Sudanic.

Joseph Greenberg took Westermann's work as a starting-point for his own classification. In a series of articles published between 1949 and 1954, he argued that Westermann's 'West Sudanic' and Bantu formed a single genetic family, which he named Niger-Congo; that Bantu constituted a subgroup of the Benue-Congo branch; that Adamawa-Eastern, previously not considered to be related, was another member of this family; and that Fula belonged to the West Atlantic languages. Just before these articles were collected in final book form (The Languages of Africa) in 1963, he amended his classification by adding Kordofanian as a branch co-ordinate with Niger-Congo as a whole; consequently, the family was renamed Niger-Kordofanian. Greenberg's work, though initially greeted with scepticism, became the prevailing view among scholars.

Bennet and Sterk (1977) presented an internal reclassification based on lexicostatistics that laid the foundation for the regrouping in Bendor-Samuel (1989). Kordofanian was thought to be one of several primary branches rather than being coordinate to the phylum as a whole, prompting re-introduction of the term 'Niger-Congo', which is in current use among linguists. Many classifications continue to place Kordofanian as the most distant branch, but mainly due to negative evidence (fewer lexical correspondences), rather than positive evidence that the other languages form a valid genealogical group. Likewise, Mande is often assumed to be the second-most distant branch based on its lack of the noun-class system prototypical of the Niger-Congo family. Other branches lacking any trace of the noun-class system are Dogon and Ijaw, whereas the Talodi branch of Kordofanian does have cognate noun classes, suggesting that Kordofanian is also not a valid group.


Niger-Congo and Nilo-Saharan

Over the years, several linguists have suggested a link between Niger-Congo and Nilo-Saharan, probably starting with Westermann's comparative work on the 'Sudanic' family in which 'Eastern Sudanic' (now classified as Nilo-Saharan) and 'Western Sudanic (now classified as Niger-Congo) were united. Gregersen (1972) proposed that Niger-Congo and Nilo-Saharan be united into a larger phylum which he termed Kongo-Saharan. His evidence was mainly based on the uncertainty in the classification of Songhay, morphological resemblances, and lexical similarities. A more recent proponent is Roger Blench (1995), who puts forward phonological, morphological and lexical evidence for uniting Niger-Congo and Nilo-Saharan in a Niger-Saharan phylum. Within Nilo-Saharan, Blench considers Niger-Congo to be most closely related to Central Sudanic. Most hypotheses uniting the two families have failed to generate much discussion.

Common features


Niger-Congo languages have a clear preference for open syllables of the type CV (Consonant Vowel). The typical word structure of Proto-Niger-Congo is thought to have been CVCV, a structure still attested in, for example, Bantu, Mande and Ijoid — in many other branches this structure has been reduced through phonological change. Verbs are composed of a root followed by one or more extensional suffixes. Nouns consist of a root originally preceded by a noun class prefix of (C)V- shape which is often eroded by phonological chang

Consonant and vowel systems

Reconstructions of the consonant system of several branches of Niger-Congo (Stewart for proto-Volta-Congo, Mukarovsky for his proto-West-Nigritic, roughly corresponding to Atlantic-Congo) have posited independently a regular phonological contrast between two classes of consonants. Pending more clarity as to the precise nature of this contrast it is commonly characterized as a contrast between 'fortis' and 'lenis' consonants. Five places of articulation are postulated for the consonant inventory of proto-Niger-Congo: labial, alveolar, palatal, velar, and labial-velar.

Many Niger-Congo languages show vowel harmony based on the feature [ATR] (advanced tongue root). In this type of vowel harmony, the position of the root of the tongue is the phonetic basis for the distinction between two harmonizing sets of vowels. In its fullest form, this type involves two classes, each of five vowels: [+ATR] /i, e, ə, o, u/ and [-ATR] /ɪ, ɛ, a, ɔ, ʊ/. Vowel inventories of this type are still found in some branches of Niger-Congo, for example in the Ghana Togo Mountain languages.[1] To date, many languages show reductions from this fuller system. The fact that ten vowels have been reconstructed for proto-Atlantic, proto-Ijoid and possibly proto-Volta-Congo leads Williamson (1989:23) to the hypothesis that the original vowel inventory of Niger-Congo was a full ten-vowel system. On the other hand, Stewart in recent comparative work reconstructs a seven vowel system for his proto-Potou-Akanic-Bantu.

The Copper Canyon

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Mexico's Copper Canyon (also known as Barranca del Cobre or Sierra Tarahumara) offers some of North America's most dramatic landscapes. Although often referred to as the Copper Canyon, it is actually a series of six massive gorges that cover some 25,000 square miles of northwestern Mexico. It is rugged territory where most roads remain unpaved and elevations range from 7,500 to 9,500 (with a few peaks reaching 12,000 feet).

In addition to the splendors of the landscape, a visit to the Copper Canyon offers a chance to see the Tarahumara Indians, who (more than many of Mexico's indigenous cultures) have been very successful in maintaining their centuries-old way of life. Many still live in caves deep in impassable canyons. The Tarahumara, who call themselves Ramámuri ("people who run"), retreated deep into the canyons several centuries ago to escape the Spanish onslaught of disease, slavery and violence. Because the territory was so rugged, and they were able to adapt to it so well, the Tarahumara have largely escaped assimilation into modern Mexico.

What was once ruggedly impassable territory, however, has become somewhat more accessible since 1961 with the completion of the Chihuahua-Pacifico railway that links Los Mochis (on the Pacific Coast in the Mexican state of Sinaloa) with the state and city of Chihuahua (in the central interior of Mexico's north). The railway is a remarkable feat of engineering. From sea level in Los Mochis, the train crosses 39 bridges and passes through 87 tunnels as it climbs to a maximum altitude of 8,056 feet (just east of Creel, near the Continental Divide), then descends into Chihuahua at 4,700 feet. For much of the 415 mile journey, especially between El Fuerte and Creel, the scenery is simply overwhelming. Deep canyons, rushing rivers, meadows of wildflowers and towering peaks greet the traveler around almost every curve in the tracks. From El Fuerte to Creel is the most spectacular segment of the trip and visitors should make sure they pass through this area during daylight hours (which when the days are short means starting the journey in Los Mochis (or El Fuerte) and traveling east toward Chihuahua).

The first-class train is truly world-class, with air conditioned cars, comfortable reclining seats, large picture windows and an excellent dining car. Plus, since its Mexico where insurance regulations do not control every aspect of life, travelers can stand in the space between the cars and have views (and photo opportunities) unobstructed by glass. (But please, if you decide to ride between cars, don't fall out and ruin it for future travelers.)

Those who simply ride the train through the Copper Canyon will miss much of the area's allure. While the landscapes visible from the train and the 20 minute stopover in El Divisadero are certainly magnificent, there is so much more. One could easily spend a week here, visiting local villages, hiking, horseback riding and more. Our schedule was not so leisurely, but we did manage a stopover of two nights in Creel (the approximate midpoint of the journey), plus an overnight trip deep into the canyon to visit the old mining town of Batopilas on the canyon floor. Creel itself is a gritty logging town and the main commercial center for nearby villages. Brightly dressed Tarahumara women share the main street with local men wearing cowboy hats, tourist agencies, small hotels and all sorts of shops. But the real reason to stop over in Creel is its easy access to the splendors of the surrounding countryside.

If time permits, an overnight trip to Batopilas is highly recommended. The small town on the canyon floor was once a booming mining town, beginning in the 1740s. Legend has it that the cobblestone streets were once paved with silver. Eventually the mines played out and Batopilas began to decline. Today the streets are hardly paved at all, but the town retains a rundown charm that reminds the visitor just how far away the modern world can be. Several miles outside of Batopilas, in an area where one would expect to find only more of the same rugged wilderness, stands the Jesuit mission church of San Miguel de Satevo, built around 1760, and sometimes referred today as the "lost cathedral." Along the way, we also met a group of young Tarahumara children.

After our stopover in Creel and Batopilas, we re-boarded the train and continued east toward the city of Chihuahua. After crossing the Continental Divide, the Chihuahua-Pacifico ("Chepe") train travels through flat open plains and farmland. During our visit in late October, the days were growing shorter and much of this part of the journey was in darkness. Late in the evening, we arrived in Chihuahua. We flew back to Mexico City early the next morning and thus had only a quick view of Chihuahua itself.







GEOGRAPHY

You'll find a variety of climates. It can snow in the mountains while tropical temperatures reign in the valleys.

The average altitude here is 2,275 meters above sea level, while the highest point, Cerro del Mohinora, is 3,306 meters and the lowest point, at the confluence of the Septentrion and Chinipas Rivers, is around 220 meters. Note that the average rainfall in Copper Canyon is close to 15 inches per year. Most of the rainfall takes place during the months of July, August and September.

To journey into this rugged and isolated terrain with knowledge of its spectacular biodiversity and history is one of Mexico's best adventures. Carl Lumholtz explored the Sierra Madre and the Barranca de Sinforosa in 1892, and his well-documented adventures have inspired generations of canyon enthusiasts.

A trip into the canyons and the Sierra requires a good base of operations, such as the town of Creel, most travelers' hub of choice. Multiple-day treks are arranged by many of the hotels in Creel, though you can find independent guide services in any of the towns by asking hotel owners or visitors. There are numerous towns along the railroad and in the valley including Batopilas, Cusárare, Divisadero, Bauchivo and Cerocahui.



CANYON HISTORY

The barrancas are one of Mexico's youngest geological formations and the largest in North America. They were formed about 30-40 million years ago, during a period of intense volcanic activity in what is present day Northwestern Mexico. Thousands of volcanoes erupted, throwing lava and ash onto the surrounding plateau and creating the Sierra Madre Occidental.

The tectonic activity also created deep fractures in the earth's crust. Because the rocks are relatively soft, the rivers originating in the high Sierra cut deep canyons on their descent to the Gulf of Mexico. The canyons bear the names of these powerful rivers: Chinipas, Candameña, Urique, Tararecua, Batopilas and Verdes.

FLORA AND FAUNA

The Sierra is one of the most biologically rich areas in Mexico. One reason is that there are two distinct environmental climates - one in the mountains and on the plateaus, and a different one at the bottom of the canyons. This terrain includes snow-covered mountain peaks and subtropical forests in the canyons.

The canyons are home to 290 recorded bird species, 24 endemic and ten in danger of extinction, including the military macaw (Ara milittaris), the thick-billed parrot (Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha), and the eared trogon (Euptilotis noxenus).

Almost a third of Mexico's land mammals are found in the region, including the black bear (Ursus americanus), the puma (Felis concolor), and the Mexican wolf (Canis Lutus baileyi), which is in danger of extinction. Hunting has claimed many species. The grizzly bear is extinct and the wild turkey and deer are now rarely seen.

More than 3,500 vascular plants are found in the region. Among them are tropical and temperate species as well as hundreds of endemic species, including at least 60 wild relatives of major crops and more than 400 wild medicinal plants, an irreplaceable genetic legacy.

Most of these endemic plant species may be endangered by logging and overgrazing. Ironically, ethnobotanists now estimate that the forests are more valuable as extractive reserves for medicinal plants than for timber. The chuchupate plant, used as a blood thinner in both traditional and modern medicine, is worth thousands of dollars per acre in virgin pine forest, but it is sparse in most of the Sierra due to overharvesting and deforestation.

Mixed forests of Ponderosa pine and Douglas fir are found above 2,000 meters (6,500 feet), while juniper, piñon, and live oak are found at lower elevations from 500 to 1,500 meters (1,640 to 4,900 feet). Biologists have counted 15 species of pine and 25 of oak.

Unfortunately, the forests within the Sierra Tarahumara have been commercially logged for 100 years. The logging has been selective, and in many cases, the worst trees have been left in areas to regenerate new forest.
URIQUE CANYON

Urique Canyon is the deepest canyon in North America, and home to a Tarahumara settlement. Founded in 1690 along the banks of the meandering river, Urique was totally isolated until connected by a switchback mountain road in 1975.

SIERRA MADRE ALLIANCE

Copper Canyon does not have federal status as a national park or as a biosphere reserve, but plans and studies are underway. In February 1996, Mexico's Environmental Secretariat (SEMARNAP) announced its intention to form a 2.2 million-acre biosphere reserve in the Sierra. The Chihuahua City–based Sierra Madre Alliance will be responsible for planning approximately 750,000 acres of this reserve in the upper Río Fuerte watershed in the Sierra Tarahumara.

Randall Gingrich, Edwin Bustillos, and indigenous leaders from the Sierra formed the Sierra Madre Alliance in 1992. The mission of the Sierra Madre program is to return control of the forests to traditional indigenous communities and to facilitate sustainable ecosystem management.

The program supports indigenous communities suffering loss of land, destruction of forests, and human rights abuses in a region acknowledged to host the greatest biological diversity in North America. Tropical and temperate species intermix in a spectacular labyrinth of pine-forested highlands and tropical canyons. The native Tarahumara and Tepehuan are among the poorest and most traditional subsistence farmers in North America. Conservation, sustainable agriculture, and defense of basic human rights are inseparable for cultural survival.

We first featured the alliance in a 1999 Profile. For up-to-date info, consult their website.

VISITING?

LOCATION - The Copper Canyon is located in the state of Chihuahua.




TRANSPORTATION - The canyon is accessible from the Chihuahua al Pacífico Railroad, the end points being Los Mochis, Sinaloa and Chihuahua City, Chihuahua. From Chihuahua, you can take the train or bus to the town of Creel, which is the easiest hub for exploration of Copper Canyon country. Other towns on the railroad are developing tourism as well, particularly Divisidero, Bauchivo and Cerocahui.

Glaciers, Fjords, and Mountains: Hiking New Zealand's South Island

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This may be the only place in the world where you can stand in a rainforest and gaze out through a mantle of giant ferns and hanging moss at a 200-foot thick, five-mile long river of ice directly below you. (If you were pitching a screenplay about the place, you'd call it "Hawaii meets Switzerland.") The South Island has eight national parks that encompass world-class glaciers, a chain of rugged snow-capped mountains where Sir Edmund Hillary trained for Everest, fjords that rate right up there with Norway and Patagonia, semi-tropical rainforest beaches, mirror-smooth lakes, tumbling whitewater rivers, as well as dozens of lesser but still spectacular mountain ranges that will keep a "tramper" (local argot for hiker) busy for a lifetime. All this in a place the size of Florida—with one-tenth of the population.

Hiking in New Zealand has a European flavor, with a broad network of well-maintained trails and huts. Some areas have an American flavor as well, with trails that meander through huge cattle and sheep stations (i.e. ranches) reminiscent of Montana. The famous five-day Milford Track is promoted as "The Most Beautiful Walk in the World," and it may well be, but there are a number of other less-known routes worthy of the name.

Practically Speaking
Tramping is a long tradition in New Zealand. Because of its well-established system of trails, substantial huts, and "bivvies" (small, rudimentary shelters), the South Island is ideal for independent tramping. Maps and guidebooks (in English, of course) are widely available, the trails are well maintained, and huts are spaced at one-day intervals along most major trails. Moreover, there are plenty of campgrounds along major roads for between-hike stays. It's quite possible to hike New Zealand on $20 a day in food, bus fare, and camping/hut fees.

More upscale accommodations are available, of course. Simple "motor camps"—modest motels with cooking facilities—run $30-$50 per night for two people. More elaborate lodges and B&Bs typically go for $50-$100 a night. A number of U.S. outfitters offer all-inclusive multi-day hiking tours of the South Island. Most run 10-16 days and cost from $160 to $250 per person per day. Local New Zealand outfitters run group walking/hiking trips as well, at about the same prices.

Be sure to take good rain gear. Except along the northern coast, rain is a normal part of any New Zealand hiking trip, although you will have beautiful sunny days as well. The prime hiking season is November through March, the Down Under summer. Be wary of January, the traditional Kiwi holiday month, when trails and huts can be

Islands in the Mediterranean

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So here´s the lowdown. I´m out in Majorca on a recce before a guiding trip that starts next week (www.tallstories.co.uk) -- Tuesday pm. It means I´m road biking around 450km with 5 other guides to double check routes I planned last autumn. Today we did 100 miles and ended up in a lovely hotel in Estellencs on the coast in the hillier part of the island. The sun went down while I massaged my knee with a cold bottle of San Miguel. Perfect.

Meanwhile over in Sardinia, it was the ETU Offroad Champs in conjunction with XTERRA. I´m very pleased to say that my girlfriend Renata won the Pro womens race .. sounds like a hard day at the office, but she´s all in one piece and super happy with the result. Check her news page at www.renatabucher.com for more details.

OK, it´s late here now in Majorca, but just wanted to drop the couple of gems out there. All seems well at home -- I was there for nearly 48 hours this week, the next big excitement is 3 of my athletes will be competing at Windsor Tri .. so I might see you there on the sidelines. All the best for now I need a big sleep! :-)

Caribou in the Arctic Refuge

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Caribou are the most numerous large mammals in the Arctic Refuge. Two herds occur there: the Porcupine Herd (named afer the Porcupine River) and the Central Arctic Herd. The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge is within the main range of the Porcupine Herd, which numbers approximately 152,000 animals, and on the periphery of the range of the smaller Central Arctic Herd with 23,400 animals.

The following discussion focuses on the Porcupine Herd, but basic features of the ecology and annual cycle of events are similar for both groups. During the year, caribou go through seven distinct phases of activities, some involving long migrations.

Spring Migration

The spring migration begins in early March as caribou gradually drift off toward the northern limits of their wintering areas. The Porcupine Herd follows three major routes to the North Slope from primarily wintering areas in Alaska and the Yukon Territory: the Richardson, Barn, and British Mountains; the Old Crow route, which crosses the Porcupine River near the settlement of Old Crow and continues northward through the Old Crow Flats, over the British Mountains and through the Firth Valley; and the Arctic Village/South Brooks Range route which crosses the East Fork of the Chandler River, the Sheenjek, and upper Coleen rivers and follows the Firth River into Canada where it joins the Old Crow route.

The caribou segregate themselves into groups which migrate at different times. Pregnant females along with some yearlings and barren cows are the first to migrate; followed by bulls and the remaining juveniles. In mid-to-late May the pregnant arrive on the North Slope, while the others follow a few weeks later.





Calving

Calving takes place during the last week in May and the first two weeks in June in the foothills and Coastal Plain between the Hulahula and Babbage rivers, and area that is generally snow free by early June. Caribou are not distributed evenlyacross the area; instead, they gather in more limited locations which vary from year to year.

There is a high degree of synchrony in the timing of the births, and this synchrony is probably an adaptation to reduce predation by 'swamping' the predators-primarily grizzlies, wolves, and occasionally golden eagles. That is, for a brief period, calves are superabundant, far more numerous than the predators can kill. This allows most of the calves to develop to the state where they are able to escape.

The calves are able to stand and nurse within an hour or two after birth, and within 24 hours they can follow their mothers and even run for short distances. The calves' precociousness is an obvious advantage where cover is sparse and predators common. Many cows with calves assemble to form small nursery bands, and these groups move slowly through the calving grounds, where the cows graze, favoring new-growth cottongrass shoots.

Post-calving Aggregation
As the mosquitoes emerge in late June and early July, the caribou gather into enormous post-calving aggregations, sometimes numbering in the tens of thousands. For example, in 1987, over 93,000 caribou assembled in one group south of Camden Bay. The caribou seek areas where breezes and cooler temperatures reduce the harassment by mosquitoes, and when there is no wind, the caribou move continually. Cold winds offer relief from the mosquitoes and permit the caribou to rest and feed freely.





By mid-to-late July, most Porcupine Caribou have moved off the Coastal Plain and into the foothills and mountains. Although some of the Porcupine Caribou occasionally remain on the North Slope for the winter, they usually travel south and east to Canada. When they do stay on the North Slope, the Porcupine Caribou usually move westward from the 1002 area and mingle with caribou from the Central Arctic Herd.

Dispersal
As the mosquitoes decline, the caribou disperse, only to be plagued by two other insect pests-the warble fly and the nose-bot fly. The warble fly, which looks like a small yellow and black bumblebee, lays its eggs in the fur of the legs or abdomen of the caribou. The larvae soon hatch, burrow under the skin, and travel to the back. Here they encapsulate and cut a breathing hole in the skin. Caribou commonly carry over one hundred larvae. It is not until May and June of the following year that the larvae cut exit holes, crawl out and drop to the ground to develop into mature flies.

The nose-bot bears live larvae, which it deposits in the nostrils of the caribou. The bot larvae move through the nasal passages and settle down at the entrance to the throat. By spring the larvae have grown so much that they may form a mass large enough to actually interfere with breathing.

The reaction of the caribou to these flies is different from the reaction to mosquitoes. The warble and nose-bot flies are strong fliers and the caribou cannot avoid them simply by seeking breezy places or moving into the wind. Instead the caribou stand, heads held low, alert for the approach of the flies. During July and early August, caribou can be seen violently shaking their heads, stamping their feet, and racing wildly over the tundra, for no apparent reason; they are seeking to evade warble or bot flies. The fly season is followed by a month's respite where the caribou can feed unmolested.

Fall Migration

The fall migration may begin any time from late August to mid-October as the caribou start to move generally southward. This migration will carry the caribou one hundred to three hundred miles south into the area south of the Brooks Range, in the vicinity of Arctic Village, Alaska, and into the southern Richardson and Ogilvie mountains in the Yukon Territory. The caribou continue to lay on fat as they move south; the males will need energy reserves for the rut and all will need it during the winter. At this time, the bulls are shedding the velvet from their antlers and rubbing them against trees and shrubs. The bulls are also becoming increasingly aggressive, engaging in brief sparring matches.

Rutting

The rut lasts for a two-week period in midOctober. During this time the bulls fast, relying on their reserves of body fat. This brief breeding period helps to explain why the calving season is similarly brief. Even during the rut, the animals continue on to their winter ranges.

Wintering
Winter is a difficult period for the caribou. Food plants are often covered by snow, so that the caribou have to dig to gain access; nor are the food plants in the winter as nutritious or as easily digested as are those available in summer. Over the winter the animals usually lose weight.

Central Arctic Herd

The other caribou in ANWR, the Central Arctic Herd, follow the same basic annual pattern as the Porcupine Herd, except that migrations are much shorter. Caribou from the Central Arctic Herd move between the arctic coast and the Brooks Range mountains, with most animals remaining north of the continental divide all year. Central Arctic Caribou use the northwestern part of the Coastal Plain during summer, and in most years several hundred to a thousand spend the winter near the Sadlerochit Mountains.

Caribou Populations

Both the Porcupine and Central Arctic Herds are biologically healthy. After a long period of stability at around 100,000 animals, the Porcupine Herd began to grow steadily during the late 1970s and 1980s and reached 180,000 animals by 1989. The herd then decreased during a series of severe winters and was down to 160,000 in 1992. In 1994, the Porcupine Herd numbered 152,000, but the caribou were in excellent physiological condition and overwinter calf survival had improved to levels comparable to the 1980s.

The Central Arctic Herd also increased during the 1970s and 1980s from 6,000 in 1978 to 23,400 in 1982. Rapid growth stopped in the late 1980s, however, and the herd now appears stable. Relatively low calf production and survival in recent years may result from severe winter weather which has also depleted moose and Dali sheep populations in the central arctic area. It is also possible that the Central Arctic Herd is approaching range carrying capacity.

Subsistence Uses

The caribou in the two herds which utilized portions of ANWR during their migration are an important subsistence food source for Inupiat Eskimos and Athabascan Indians who live in communities near the migratory routes of the caribou herds.

A Serene Expedition to Switzerland

The cultural and lingual assortment of the landlocked, hilly country is the essence of Switzerland. Responsible for its unique identity, Switzerland is best known for its financial institutions, fine cheeses and chocolates, watch making industry. Its beautiful landscapes and an excellent public network are smooth enough to make it a world class travel destinations. Tourist Destinations in Switzerland is meant for Honeymooners. The Capital City Berne; the UNO Head Quarter Geneva, Zurich, Lucerne, Lugano, Lausanne, St. Moritz, Locarno, Swiss Alps, Zermatt, Interlaken and Montreux comprise the extra ordinary destinations of the place.

Have a Honeymoon in Switzerland, make a tour to Glacier Express in winter, experience in the excursions in the Peaks of the World and thus to enjoy with the Special Tours. Staying at some of the best Hotels in Switzerland will get you the ul timate pleasure of the vicinity. Creased by the Swiss Alps, portraying the nature in its most beautiful form, Switzerland is a small multi-cultural spot, placed for visitors in central Europe. The main international airports of Zurich and Geneva are among the most modern airports in Europe. They are served by the leading airlines of nearly 100 countries. Basel, Berne and Lugano are Smaller international airports provides flights in every regular interval.